Articles

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Ubiquity

Volume 2023, Number December (2023), Pages 1-12

Communication Corner: Fundamental Writing Tips and Techniques
Philip Yaffe
DOI: 10.1145/3636479

Each "Communication Corner" essay is self-contained; however, they build on each other. For best results, before reading this essay and doing the exercise, go to the first essay "How an Ugly Duckling Became a Swan," then read each succeeding essay.

The principles of good writing are universal; they apply in all languages. However, different languages have different ways of expressing things. For example, English has a predilection toward using the gerund form, erg, "Running is good for health" rather than the infinitive "To run is good for health." By contrast, other languages, such as French, prefer the infinitive and would view the gerund as unnatural, and therefore distracting. However, in whatever language you write, such differences will always be secondary to the fundamental principles and techniques.

Having fully covered the fundamental principles and techniques of professional writing in previous essays, we can now look at some specific tips and techniques. But remember, they can be effectively applied only when these fundamentals are consciously and consistently observed.

To help you keep these fundamental principles uppermost in mind, here they are in review.

Fundamental Purpose
Expository (non-fiction) writing is designed to inform and instruct.

Fundamental Attitude
No one wants to read what you are going to write.
First and foremost, you must give them reasons for doing so.

Fundamental Approach
Organize information to generate interest.

Definition of Clarity: C_L = EDE

• Emphasize what is of key importance
• De-emphasize what is of secondary importance
• Eliminate what is of no importance

Definition of Conciseness: C_O = LS

• Long as necessary
• Short as possible

Definition of Density: D = PL

• Precise information
• Logically linked

Inverted Pyramid

• Lead: Who? What? When? Why? How?
• Body: Detailed information in declining order of importance

Fog Factors

Unnecessary words in a text cause fog (reduced clarity). Eliminate them.

• Fog: On the one hand the box was big and on the other hand it was green.
• Clarity: The box was big and green.
    
  Fog: When we take into account those factors that have an effect on the economy
• Clarity: Concerning economic factors
    
  Fog: In the last place on the list
• Clarity: Finally

Remember: Nothing in a text is neutral. Whatever doesn't add to the text, subtracts from it.

Sentence Length

Contrary to the popular belief, a logically constructed long sentence can be easier to understand than several shorter ones. ("Long" and "short" are weasel words, because what is long in one situation is short in another.)

Check "long" sentences for logical coherence.

• If the ideas are closely related, leave the sentence alone.
• If not, divide it into logically coherent shorter ones.

Check "short" sentences for logical linkage.

• If the ideas in several sentences are closely related, put them together into a single sentence.
• If not, leave them separate.

Placement for Emphasis

Words at the beginning and at the end of a sentence have stronger emphasis than those in the middle. These are known as "hot spots." Put key information into these hot spots to aid reader understanding.

Example 1:

• Poor
    
            Astronomers hunting for evidence of life outside of our solar system announced discovery of a new class of planets yesterday.
    
    Better
    
            Yesterday astronomers hunting for evidence of life outside of our solar system announced discovery of a new class of planets.
    
    Best
    
            Astronomers hunting for evidence of life outside of our solar system yesterday announced discovery of a new class of planets.

Example 2:

• Poor
    
            The national leaders met to discuss new trade relations between their two countries in the Royal Palace.
    
    Better
    
            In the Royal Palace the national leaders met to discuss new trade relations between their two countries.
    
    Best
    
            The national leaders met in the Royal Palace to discuss new trade relations between their two countries.

Important caveat. While hot spots exist in English, only a linguist would know if they exist in other languages as well. If you are not writing in English, check to see if your language also has hot spots. If yes, then fully exploit them on all possible occasions.

Separation for Emphasis
Separate a key idea from a longer sentence for dramatic impact.

• Poor
    
            Only a few years ago, we were a small specialty manufacturer in Europe, but we have grown, so that today we are no longer small.
    
    Better
    
            Only a few years ago, we were a small specialty manufacturer in Europe, but we have grown. Today, we are no longer small.

Separation can also be used with paragraphs, which may lead to single-sentence paragraphs. Although more acceptable today than in the recent past, some grammarians and conventional writers would still say that single-sentence paragraphs violate some kind of grammatical "rule". However, professional writers increasingly ignore this so-called rule when it boosts clarity; dramatic effect and clarity often go hand-in-hand.

You have already seen many examples of paragraph separation throughout Communication Corner essays. Here are two of them.

Example 1:

Conventional writing (2 paragraphs)

Over the past 40 years, I have frequently been told that I am an exceptionally good writer, by teachers, friends, colleagues, and clients. But I wasn't always a good writer; in fact, I used be a very bad one.

So what happened to bring about this monumental change? Basically, university. When I was growing up (I was born in 1942), I was a very unusual kid. I absolutely loved school. I was especially fond of math and science; I never really thought about writing. However when I went from primary to secondary school, I quickly realized that writing would become increasingly important. So being the bizarre kid I was, I decided to teach myself how to do it.

Professional writing (3 paragraphs)

Over the past 40 years, I have frequently been told that I am an exceptionally good writer, by teachers, friends, colleagues, and clients. But I wasn't always a good writer; in fact, I used be a very bad one.

So what happened to bring about this monumental change? Basically, university.

When I was growing up (I was born in 1942), I was a very unusual kid. I absolutely loved school. I was especially fond of math and science; I never really thought about writing. However, when I went from primary to secondary school, I quickly realized that writing would become increasingly important. So being the bizarre kid I was, I decided to teach myself how to do it.

Example 2:

Conventional writing (1 paragraph)

You may now feel that the inverted pyramid is an excellent idea -- for newspapers. But is it relevant for the type of writing that you do? Emphatically, yes! Remember, the inverted pyramid provides information in exactly the way people prefer it, particularly when they are in a hurry.

Professional writing (2 paragraphs)

You may now feel that the inverted pyramid is an excellent idea -- for newspapers. But is it relevant for the type of writing that you do?

Emphatically, yes!

Remember, the inverted pyramid provides information in exactly the way people prefer it, particularly when they are in a hurry.

Parentheses and Dashes for Emphasis

Use parentheses (these are parentheses) to incorporate explanatory or secondary information into a sentence.

Use dashes -- these are dashes -- to highlight exceptionally important information within a sentence.

Example: Newspapers used to be published infrequently (weekly rather than daily) and had very few pages. When they became dailies -- with some even having several editions each day -- they no longer had time to rewrite stories to fit the space for them on the page.

Repetition for Clarity

Do not be afraid to repeat a word for clarity and emphasis. Continually changing terminology causes hesitation and reduces clarity.

• The big dog looked at me strangely. I am afraid of big dogs, so I cautiously moved away.
    
    Not: The big dog looked at me strangely. I am afraid of large canines, so I cautiously moved away.

If you wish to use more than one term to mean the same thing, be certain that you clearly inform the reader.

• Poor
    
            Atopic dermatitis is a common disease of infants aged 0-2 years. About half of all infants with infantile eczema will develop asthma before their fourth birthday.
    
    Better
    
            Atopic dermatitis (infantile eczema) is a common disease of infants aged 0-2 years. About half of all infants with infantile eczema will develop asthma before their fourth birthday.

Avoid Using the Conjunction "And"

The conjunction "and" is like an equal sign, indicating that the two ideas it connects have essentially the same weight. However, often they don't; one idea is more important than the other. Make this relationship explicit. Don't expect the reader to do it.

• Poor
    
            It started to rain and John went into the house.
    
    Better
    
          It started to rain, so John went into the house.
•         It started to rain; therefore John went into the house.
•         Because it started to rain, John went into the house.
•         As it started to rain, John went into the house.
•         When it started to rain, John went into the house.

Active Versus Passive Verb Forms

Use active verb forms rather than passive ones to create a sense of immediacy.

• We have just gone through a difficult period.
• Not: We have just been in a difficult period.

"Just gone through" is active because "to go" is an action. The active verb strongly confirms that the difficult period is now over.

"Just been in" is passive because "to be" is a state or condition. The passive verb less strongly confirms that the difficult period is now over.

Verbs for Conciseness and Density

Use verbs rather than nouns to increase conciseness and density.

• The new product will strongly contribute to increasing profits.
• Not: The new product will be a strong contributor to an increase in profits.

Bullet Points and Numbered Lists

Use bullet points or numbered lists to explain and highlight general statements. Bullet points or numbers that relate to nothing have no value. In other words, first state a proposition; next show bullet points or a numbered list to support it. For example:

These are the four factors that led us to this decision:

1. Economic conditions are…
2. Technical developments have…
3. Government policy will…
4. Social conditions are…

These are the four factors that led us to this decision:

• Economic conditions are…
• Technical developments have…
• Government policy will…
• Social conditions are…

Make bullet points and numbered lists "clean." The purpose of bullet points is to make thoughts and information stand out. So why go against the current by not capitalizing the first letter of each point?

Version A

Our system helps people:

• write better;
• write faster;
• write persuasively;
• reduce errors; reduce formatting problems.

Version B

Our system helps people:

• Write better
• Write faster
• Write persuasively
• Reduce errors
• Reduce formatting problems

Notice that in addition to capitalizing each bullet point, Version B also eliminates the semi-colons and the period. What logic is there for putting in commas, semi-colons, and periods? The fact that the next line is a new bullet point, i.e., clearly a new thought, makes such punctuation unnecessary, and even distracting.

Arrange listed items to start with a verb or a key word.

Starting each item of a list with a verb or key word increases impact and facilitates understanding. Starting each item passively or with a minor element or little or no significance impedes impact and understanding.

• Poor
    
    There are many advantages to assertive communication:
    
  • It helps us feel good about ourselves and others
  • It leads to the development of mutual respect with others
  • It increases our self-esteem
  • It helps us achieve our goals.

• Better
    
    There are many advantages to assertive communication. It:
    
  • Helps us feel good about ourselves and others
  • Helps us achieve our goals
  • Leads to the development of mutual respect with others
  • Increases our self-esteem

"It" is a limp term. Using it four times within the list detracts from the impact and understanding we want the list to achieve. Using it only once in the introduction to the list does the job much better.

Since each bullet point now takes the form of a phrase rather than a complete sentence, we can eliminate the periods at the end, which now serve no real purpose.

How to Display Data

Display data directly next to their reference. Data displayed "respectively" requires the reader to stop and confirm the correct order.

• Poor
    
    The CAC, DAX, and AEX all fell during past three months: -1.76%, -0.98%, and -2.26% respectively.
    
    
• Better
    
    The three indices that fell during the past three months were: CAC (-1.76%), DAX (-0.98%), and AEX (-2.26%).

When readers must backtrack to confirm data, you disrupt their attention to the text. By displaying data properly, you maintain reader attention. The word "respectively" is almost always a distraction. Banish it from your vocabulary!

Writing and Re-writing

First draft:

• Focus on structure and content.
• Write the way you speak, i.e. rapidly put the content into the structure without too much concern for how you are writing.

Revised draft:

• Focus on clarity, conciseness, density.
• Correct grammar, vocabulary, wordiness, poorly placed info, etc.

The first draft and the revised draft are two distinct phases of good writing. Do them separately; do not try to do both at the same time.

Leave a few hours (or days) between the first draft and the revised draft. During this so-called "incubation period," your subconscious mind will continue thinking about the text while your conscious mind is focused somewhere else. When you do work on the revised draft, you will be more efficient. You will produce a much better text in much less time than if you try to do the two phases simultaneously or immediately after each other.

Good writing is not easy…

But it gets easier.

Author

Philip Yaffe was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1942 and grew up in Los Angeles, where he graduated from the University of California with a degree in mathematics and physics. In his senior year, he was also editor-in-chief of the Daily Bruin, UCLA's daily student newspaper. He has more than 40 years of experience in journalism and international marketing communication. At various points in his career, he has been a teacher of journalism, a reporter/feature writer with The Wall Street Journal, an account executive with a major international press relations agency, European marketing communication director with two major international companies, and a founding partner of a specialized marketing communication agency in Brussels, Belgium, where he has lived since 1974. He is the author of more than 30 books, which can be found easily in Amazon Kindle.

2023 Copyright held by the Owner/Author.

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